The Physics Behind the Quadruple Axel, the Most Difficult Jump in Figure Skating

In figure skating, The quadruple pivot is generally considered the most difficult jump. By 2022, when American skater Ilya Malinin – who is currently hailed as the “Quad God” at the 2026 Winter Olympics – started doing them, they seemed impossible. Landings, naturally, can give an athlete higher marks. But for skaters who aren’t generational talents like Malinin, accurate understanding How The quadruple pivot can be difficult to pull off. But physics may provide some clues.

In 2024, the journal Sports Biomechanics published a study by Toin University researcher Seiji Hirosawa that brought science a little closer to understanding how quad axles work. One of the biggest factors? getting high. Like 20 inches high from the ground.

In the current scoring system of figure skating competitions, the jury, which in the case of the Milano Cortina Games consists of two technical experts and a technical controller, awards a score for each technical element, namely jumps, spins and steps. However, more difficult jumps, such as triple or quadruple jumps, have higher scores than other technical elements, so skaters must execute them correctly to win competitions.

Generally speaking, the Axel is the most technically complex of the jumps. There are three main types, each distinguished by their takeoff: toe, blade, or edge. Most are named after the first person to do them; Axel is named after Norwegian skater Axel Paulsen. It is also the only one that involves a forward start, leading the athlete to perform more of a half-turn than other jumps. Therefore, a simple pivot requires one and a half revolutions to complete, while a quadruple pivot requires four and a half revolutions in the air.

To shed light on the specific kinetic strategies used by athletes to perform the quadruple axel jump, Hirosawa’s study focused on footage of two skaters who attempted this jump in competition. Using data from what is known as the Ice Scope tracking system, researchers analyzed several parameters: vertical height, horizontal distance, and skating speed before takeoff and after landing.

In contrast to previous biomechanical studies that suggested that jump height does not change significantly, Hirosawa’s study found that increasing jump height is important to successfully perform a quadruple axel jump. In fact, both skaters aimed to achieve significantly greater vertical height in their attempts to perform this jump than the triple Axel.

“This suggests a strategic shift towards increasing vertical height to master 4A [quadruple axel] jump, in contrast to previous biomechanical research, which did not emphasize vertical height,” the study concluded.

Hirosawa states that increasing jump height increases flight time by allowing a larger number of rotations around the longitudinal axis of the body. Short version: jump higher, turn more. “The results of this study provide valuable insight into the biomechanics of quadruple and triple axel jumps, update existing principles of figure skating research, and provide insight into training strategies for managing complex jumps,” the study concludes.

Easier said than done—unless you’re Ilya Malinin.